Geant4 provides event biasing techniques which may be used to save computing time in such applications as the simulation of radiation shielding. These are geometrical splitting and Russian roulette (also called geometrical importance sampling), and weight roulette. Scoring is carried out by G4MultiFunctionalDetector (see and ) using the standard Geant4 scoring technique. Biasing specific scorers have been implemented and are described within G4MultiFunctionDetector documentation. In this chapter, it is assumed that the reader is familiar with both the usage of Geant4 and the concepts of importance sampling. More detailed documentation may be found in the documents 'Scoring, geometrical importance sampling and weight roulette' . A detailed description of different use-cases which employ the sampling and scoring techniques can be found in the document 'Use cases of importance sampling and scoring in Geant4' . The purpose of importance sampling is to save computing time by sampling less often the particle histories entering "less important" geometry regions, and more often in more "important" regions. Given the same amount of computing time, an importance-sampled and an analogue-sampled simulation must show equal mean values, while the importance-sampled simulation will have a decreased variance. The implementation of scoring is independent of the implementation of importance sampling. However both share common concepts. Scoring and importance sampling apply to particle types chosen by the user, which should be borne in mind when interpreting the output of any biased simulation. Examples on how to use scoring and importance sampling may be found in examples/extended/biasing. The kind of scoring referred to in this note and the importance sampling apply to spatial cells provided by the user. A cell is a physical volume (further specified by it's replica number, if the volume is a replica). Cells may be defined in two kinds of geometries: mass geometry: the geometry setup of the experiment to be simulated. Physics processes apply to this geometry. parallel-geometry: a geometry constructed to define the physical volumes according to which scoring and/or importance sampling is applied. The user has the choice to score and/or sample by importance the particles of the chosen type, according to mass geometry or to parallel geometry. It is possible to utilize several parallel geometries in addition to the mass geometry. This provides the user with a lot of flexibility to define separate geometries for different particle types in order to apply scoring or/and importance sampling. Parallel geometries should be constructed using the implementation as described in . There are a few conditions for parallel geometries: The world volume for parallel and mass geometries must be identical copies. Scoring and importance cells must not share boundaries with the world volume. Samplers are higher level tools which perform the necessary changes of the Geant4 sampling in order to apply importance sampling and weight roulette. Variance reduction (and scoring through the G4MultiFunctionalDetector) may be combined arbitrarily for chosen particle types and may be applied to the mass or to parallel geometries. The G4GeometrySampler can be applied equally to mass or parallel geometries with an abstract interface supplied by G4VSampler. G4VSampler provides Prepare... methods and a Configure method: class G4VSampler { public: G4VSampler(); virtual ~G4VSampler(); virtual void PrepareImportanceSampling(G4VIStore *istore, const G4VImportanceAlgorithm *ialg = 0) = 0; virtual void PrepareWeightRoulett(G4double wsurvive = 0.5, G4double wlimit = 0.25, G4double isource = 1) = 0; virtual void PrepareWeightWindow(G4VWeightWindowStore *wwstore, G4VWeightWindowAlgorithm *wwAlg = 0, G4PlaceOfAction placeOfAction = onBoundary) = 0; virtual void Configure() = 0; virtual void ClearSampling() = 0; virtual G4bool IsConfigured() const = 0; }; The methods for setting up the desired combination need specific information: Importance sampling: message PrepareImportanceSampling with a G4VIStore and optionally a G4VImportanceAlgorithm Weight window: message PrepareWeightWindow with the arguments: *wwstore: a G4VWeightWindowStore for retrieving the lower weight bounds for the energy-space cells *wwAlg: a G4VWeightWindowAlgorithm if a customized algorithm should be used placeOfAction: a G4PlaceOfAction specifying where to perform the biasing Weight roulette: message PrepareWeightRoulett with the optional parameters: wsurvive: survival weight wlimit: minimal allowed value of weight * source importance / cell importance isource: importance of the source cell Each object of a sampler class is responsible for one particle type. The particle type is given to the constructor of the sampler classes via the particle type name, e.g. "neutron". Depending on the specific purpose, the Configure() of a sampler will set up specialized processes (derived from G4VProcess) for transportation in the parallel geometry, importance sampling and weight roulette for the given particle type. When Configure() is invoked the sampler places the processes in the correct order independent of the order in which user invoked the Prepare... methods. The Prepare...() functions may each only be invoked once. To configure the sampling the function Configure() must be called after the G4RunManager has been initialized and the PhysicsList has been instantiated. The interface and framework are demonstrated in the examples/extended/biasing directory, with the main changes being to the G4GeometrySampler class and the fact that in the parallel case the WorldVolume is a copy of the Mass World. The parallel geometry now has to inherit from G4VUserParallelWorld which also has the GetWorld() method in order to retrieve a copy of the mass geometry WorldVolume. class B02ImportanceDetectorConstruction : public G4VUserParallelWorld ghostWorld = GetWorld(); The constructor for G4GeometrySampler takes a pointer to the physical world volume and the particle type name (e.g. "neutron") as arguments. In a single mass geometry the sampler is created as follows: G4GeometrySampler mgs(detector->GetWorldVolume(),"neutron"); mgs.SetParallel(false); Whilst the following lines of code are required in order to set up the sampler for the parallel geometry case: G4VPhysicalVolume* ghostWorld = pdet->GetWorldVolume(); G4GeometrySampler pgs(ghostWorld,"neutron"); pgs.SetParallel(true); Also note that the preparation and configuration of the samplers has to be carried out after the instantiation of the UserPhysicsList and after the initialisation of the G4RunManager: pgs.PrepareImportanceSampling(&aIstore, 0); pgs.Configure(); Due to the fact that biasing is a process and has to be inserted after all the other processes have been created. Importance sampling acts on particles crossing boundaries between "importance cells". The action taken depends on the importance values assigned to the cells. In general a particle history is either split or Russian roulette is played if the importance increases or decreases, respectively. A weight assigned to the history is changed according to the action taken. The tools provided for importance sampling require the user to have a good understanding of the physics in the problem. This is because the user has to decide which particle types require importance sampled, define the cells, and assign importance values to the cells. If this is not done properly the results cannot be expected to describe a real experiment. The assignment of importance values to a cell is done using an importance store described below. An "importance store" with the interface G4VIStore is used to store importance values related to cells. In order to do importance sampling the user has to create an object (e.g. of class G4IStore) of type G4VIStore. The samplers may be given a G4VIStore. The user fills the store with cells and their importance values. An importance store has to be constructed with a reference to the world volume of the geometry used for importance sampling. This may be the world volume of the mass or of a parallel geometry. Importance stores derive from the interface G4VIStore: class G4VIStore { public: G4VIStore(); virtual ~G4VIStore(); virtual G4double GetImportance(const G4GeometryCell &gCell) const = 0; virtual G4bool IsKnown(const G4GeometryCell &gCell) const = 0; virtual const G4VPhysicalVolume &GetWorldVolume() const = 0; }; A concrete implementation of an importance store is provided by the class G4VStore. The public part of the class is: class G4IStore : public G4VIStore { public: explicit G4IStore(const G4VPhysicalVolume &worldvolume); virtual ~G4IStore(); virtual G4double GetImportance(const G4GeometryCell &gCell) const; virtual G4bool IsKnown(const G4GeometryCell &gCell) const; virtual const G4VPhysicalVolume &GetWorldVolume() const; void AddImportanceGeometryCell(G4double importance, const G4GeometryCell &gCell); void AddImportanceGeometryCell(G4double importance, const G4VPhysicalVolume &, G4int aRepNum = 0); void ChangeImportance(G4double importance, const G4GeometryCell &gCell); void ChangeImportance(G4double importance, const G4VPhysicalVolume &, G4int aRepNum = 0); G4double GetImportance(const G4VPhysicalVolume &, G4int aRepNum = 0) const ; private: ..... }; The member function AddImportanceGeometryCell() enters a cell and an importance value into the importance store. The importance values may be returned either according to a physical volume and a replica number or according to a G4GeometryCell. The user must be aware of the interpretation of assigning importance values to a cell. If scoring is also implemented then this is attached to logical volumes, in which case the physical volume and replica number method should be used for assigning importance values. See examples/extended/biasing B01 and B02 for examples of this. An importance value must be assigned to every cell. The different cases: Cell is not in store Not filling a certain cell in the store will cause an exception. Importance value = zero Tracks of the chosen particle type will be killed. importance values > 0 Normal allowed values Importance value smaller zero Not allowed! Importance sampling supports using a customized importance sampling algorithm. To this end, the sampler interface G4VSampler may be given a pointer to the interface G4VImportanceAlgorithm: class G4VImportanceAlgorithm { public: G4VImportanceAlgorithm(); virtual ~G4VImportanceAlgorithm(); virtual G4Nsplit_Weight Calculate(G4double ipre, G4double ipost, G4double init_w) const = 0; }; The method Calculate() takes the arguments: ipre, ipost: importance of the previous cell and the importance of the current cell, respectively. init_w: the particles weight It returns the struct: class G4Nsplit_Weight { public: G4int fN; G4double fW; }; fN: the calculated number of particles to exit the importance sampling fW: the weight of the particles The user may have a customized algorithm used by providing a class inheriting from G4VImportanceAlgorithm. If no customized algorithm is given to the sampler the default importance sampling algorithm is used. This algorithm is implemented in G4ImportanceAlgorithm. The weight window technique is a weight-based alternative to importance sampling: applies splitting and Russian roulette depending on space (cells) and energy user defines weight windows in contrast to defining importance values as in importance sampling In contrast to importance sampling this technique is not weight blind. Instead the technique is applied according to the particle weight with respect to the current energy-space cell. Therefore the technique is convenient to apply in combination with other variance reduction techniques such as cross-section biasing and implicit capture. A weight window may be specified for every cell and for several energy regions: space-energy cell.

Weight window concept

Weight window concept The user specifies a lower weight bound W_L for every space-energy cell. The upper weight bound W_U and the survival weight W_S are calculated as: W_U = C_U W_L and W_S = C_S W_L. The user specifies C_S and C_U once for the whole problem. The user may give different sets of energy bounds for every cell or one set for all geometrical cells Special case: if C_S = C_U = 1 for all energies then weight window is equivalent to importance sampling The user can choose to apply the technique: at boundaries, on collisions or on boundaries and collisions The energy-space cells are realized by G4GeometryCell as in importance sampling. The cells are stored in a weight window store defined by G4VWeightWindowStore: class G4VWeightWindowStore { public: G4VWeightWindowStore(); virtual ~G4VWeightWindowStore(); virtual G4double GetLowerWeitgh(const G4GeometryCell &gCell, G4double partEnergy) const = 0; virtual G4bool IsKnown(const G4GeometryCell &gCell) const = 0; virtual const G4VPhysicalVolume &GetWorldVolume() const = 0; }; A concrete implementation is provided: class G4WeightWindowStore: public G4VWeightWindowStore { public: explicit G4WeightWindowStore(const G4VPhysicalVolume &worldvolume); virtual ~G4WeightWindowStore(); virtual G4double GetLowerWeitgh(const G4GeometryCell &gCell, G4double partEnergy) const; virtual G4bool IsKnown(const G4GeometryCell &gCell) const; virtual const G4VPhysicalVolume &GetWorldVolume() const; void AddLowerWeights(const G4GeometryCell &gCell, const std::vector<G4double> &lowerWeights); void AddUpperEboundLowerWeightPairs(const G4GeometryCell &gCell, const G4UpperEnergyToLowerWeightMap& enWeMap); void SetGeneralUpperEnergyBounds(const std::set<G4double, std::less<G4double> > & enBounds); private:: ... }; The user may choose equal energy bounds for all cells. In this case a set of upper energy bounds must be given to the store using the method SetGeneralUpperEnergyBounds. If a general set of energy bounds have been set AddLowerWeights can be used to add the cells. Alternatively, the user may chose different energy regions for different cells. In this case the user must provide a mapping of upper energy bounds to lower weight bounds for every cell using the method AddUpperEboundLowerWeightPairs. Weight window algorithms implementing the interface class G4VWeightWindowAlgorithm can be used to define a customized algorithm: class G4VWeightWindowAlgorithm { public: G4VWeightWindowAlgorithm(); virtual ~G4VWeightWindowAlgorithm(); virtual G4Nsplit_Weight Calculate(G4double init_w, G4double lowerWeightBound) const = 0; }; A concrete implementation is provided and used as a default: class G4WeightWindowAlgorithm : public G4VWeightWindowAlgorithm { public: G4WeightWindowAlgorithm(G4double upperLimitFaktor = 5, G4double survivalFaktor = 3, G4int maxNumberOfSplits = 5); virtual ~G4WeightWindowAlgorithm(); virtual G4Nsplit_Weight Calculate(G4double init_w, G4double lowerWeightBound) const; private: ... }; The constructor takes three parameters which are used to: calculate the upper weight bound (upperLimitFaktor), calculate the survival weight (survivalFaktor), and introduce a maximal number (maxNumberOfSplits) of copies to be created in one go. In addition, the inverse of the maxNumberOfSplits is used to specify the minimum survival probability in case of Russian roulette. Weight roulette (also called weight cutoff) is usually applied if importance sampling and implicit capture are used together. Implicit capture is not described here but it is useful to note that this procedure reduces a particle weight in every collision instead of killing the particle with some probability. Together with importance sampling the weight of a particle may become so low that it does not change any result significantly. Hence tracking a very low weight particle is a waste of computing time. Weight roulette is applied in order to solve this problem. The weight roulette concept Weight roulette takes into account the importance "Ic" of the current cell and the importance "Is" of the cell in which the source is located, by using the ratio "R=Is/Ic". Weight roulette uses a relative minimal weight limit and a relative survival weight. When a particle falls below the weight limit Russian roulette is applied. If the particle survives, tracking will be continued and the particle weight will be set to the survival weight. The weight roulette uses the following parameters with their default values: wsurvival: 0.5 wlimit: 0.25 isource: 1 The following algorithm is applied: If a particle weight "w" is lower than R*wlimit: the weight of the particle will be changed to "ws = wsurvival*R" the probability for the particle to survive is "p = w/ws" Geant4 supports physics based biasing through a number of general use, built in biasing techniques. A utility class, G4WrapperProcess, is also available to support user defined biasing. Primary particle biasing can be used to increase the number of primary particles generated in a particular phase space region of interest. The weight of the primary particle is modified as appropriate. A general implementation is provided through the G4GeneralParticleSource class. It is possible to bias position, angular and energy distributions. G4GeneralParticleSource is a concrete implementation of G4VPrimaryGenerator. To use, instantiate G4GeneralParticleSource in the G4VUserPrimaryGeneratorAction class, as demonstrated below. MyPrimaryGeneratorAction::MyPrimaryGeneratorAction() { generator = new G4GeneralParticleSource; } void MyPrimaryGeneratorAction::GeneratePrimaries(G4Event*anEvent){ generator->GeneratePrimaryVertex(anEvent); } The biasing can be configured through interactive commands. Extensive documentation can be found in Primary particle biasing. Examples are also distributed with the Geant4 distribution in examples/extended/eventgenerator/exgps. The G4RadioactiveDecay class simulates the decay of radioactive nuclei and implements the following biasing options: Increase the sampling rate of radionuclides within observation times through a user defined probability distribution function Nuclear splitting, where the parent nuclide is split into a user defined number of nuclides Branching ratio biasing where branching ratios are sampled with equal probability G4RadioactiveDecay is a process which must be registered with a process manager, as demonstrated below. void MyPhysicsList::ConstructProcess() { ... G4RadioactiveDecay* theRadioactiveDecay = new G4RadioactiveDecay(); G4ProcessManager* pmanager = ... pmanager ->AddProcess(theRadioactiveDecay); ... } The biasing can be controlled either in compiled code or through interactive commands. Extensive documentation can be found in Radioactive decay biasing example and Radioactive decay biasing . Radioactive decay biasing examples are also distributed with the Geant4 distribution in examples/extended/radioactivedecay/exrdm. One hadronic leading particle biasing technique is implemented in the G4HadLeadBias utility. This method keeps only the most important part of the event, as well as representative tracks of each given particle type. So the track with the highest energy as well as one of each of Baryon, pi0, mesons and leptons. As usual, appropriate weights are assigned to the particles. Setting the SwitchLeadBiasOn environmental variable will activate this utility. Cross section biasing artificially enhances/reduces the cross section of a process. This may be useful for studying thin layer interactions or thick layer shielding. The built in hadronic cross section biasing applies to photon inelastic, electron nuclear and positron nuclear processes. The biasing is controlled through the BiasCrossSectionByFactor method in G4HadronicProcess, as demonstrated below. void MyPhysicsList::ConstructProcess() { ... G4ElectroNuclearReaction * theElectroReaction = new G4ElectroNuclearReaction; G4ElectronNuclearProcess theElectronNuclearProcess; theElectronNuclearProcess.RegisterMe(theElectroReaction); theElectronNuclearProcess.BiasCrossSectionByFactor(100); pManager->AddDiscreteProcess(&theElectronNuclearProcess); ... } G4WrapperProcess can be used to implement user defined event biasing. G4WrapperProcess, which is a process itself, wraps an existing process. By default, all function calls are forwared to the wrapped process. It is a non-invasive way to modify the behaviour of an existing process. To use this utility, first create a derived class inheriting from G4WrapperProcess. Override the methods whose behaviour you would like to modify, for example, PostStepDoIt, and register the derived class in place of the process to be wrapped. Finally, register the wrapped process with G4WrapperProcess. The code snippets below demonstrate its use. class MyWrapperProcess : public G4WrapperProcess { ... G4VParticleChange* PostStepDoIt(const G4Track& track, const G4Step& step) { // Do something interesting } }; void MyPhysicsList::ConstructProcess() { ... G4LowEnergyBremsstrahlung* bremProcess = new G4LowEnergyBremsstrahlung(); MyWrapperProcess* wrapper = new MyWrapperProcess(); wrapper->RegisterProcess(bremProcess); processManager->AddProcess(wrapper, -1, -1, 3); }